Edasseri
Govindan Nair (1906-1974) is one of the major poets of Malayalam
literature.He was a recipient of
Sahithya Academy Award for poetry.‘Kuttippuram Bridge’ is a translated one where the poet shares his
feelings of surprise, happiness and anxiety on his walking over the bridge
after its construction in 1953.
The
eleven-span bridge on National Highway in Kuttippuram needed twenty-three lakhs
and 58 months to get completed.The poet
stood proudly on the bridge and gazed upon the dwindling ‘Perar’ (Nila)
river.Though he was 47 years old then,
he remembered playing ‘poothamkole’, his taking a dip in the cool waves
before prayer and watching kingfishers, cuckoos and herons up above the
river.During heavy rains, the arrogant
and boisterous river used to burst the banks.But then the river was crawling to flow below the bridge.On seeing it the poet chuckled and thought
about the change in the river’s attitude.
Though
he was delightfully considering the victory of mankind, an unknown feeling of
agony haunted his conscience.He began
to recollect the fading picture of his village life.The sweet and healthy village was actually
bidding the final farewell.The vast
paddy fields, the houses flanked by fruit-bearing trees, and the hill valleys are
slowly moving away.The temple
festivities with oil lamps, farmer’s songs that fill the day and the chills in
the dead of light are all also disappearing and allow other things to come to
light.
Granite,
cement steel, tyre and petrol have started their reign.Walls are rising everywhere.The noises made by them and their movements
quicken everywhere.People move away
from their native places.All familiar
faces are disappearing.Strangers become
neighbours.So strangers need to be
loved and all the loving and lovable friends have become outsiders.
As
the bridge passes by the side of the temple of Malloor, the Lord Siva of
Malloor has become a street deity.The
‘Anthimaha Kaalan’ hill, which is standing high up and serene, would now spin
like a top, spun by an egotist machine child.Everything is getting changed.Even the laughter and tears have become machine-like.Here the poet disappointedly asks the ‘Perar’
river whether the river will also accept the changes and get changed into a
canal of grief carrying sewage.Thus the
poet talks more about the change that is unfortunately inevitable, doing more
harm than good.That is why he says on standing on the bridge, an unknown feeling that streams inside “haunts my
conscience with agony.”
Thomas Gray, who is known as the morning star of
English Romanticism, is now remembered chiefly for his ‘Elegy’.It is one of the most memorable of English
poems. An Elegy is a poem of
mourning.Usually an elegy mourns the
death of a particular person.But Gray’s
poem is different.It mourns the passing
away of a whole generation.He tries to
glorify ‘the short and simple annals of the poor’.The poem ends with a remarkable piece of
self-portraiture. He sums up his own life in a few memorable lines at the end
of the poem.Gray took four years to
complete the poem.In fact, Gray’s
poetic fame rests chiefly on this poem.That’s why Gray’s Elegy has been described as a first-rate poem by a
second-rate poet.
The
Elegy is remarkable for many things. It
fully reveals Gray’s description of an evening in a village. The church bell announces the end of the daytime. The herd of cattle and sheep return
home. The farmer returns from the
field. There is silence and growing
darkness everywhere. However, the
silence is broken by the droning of beetles, the tinkling sounds made by the
little bells hanging from the neck of cattle and sheep and the hooting of the owl. After presenting beautiful visual and
auditory images of the evening, Gray plunges into the central theme. He refers to the ‘narrow cells’ in which ‘The
rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep’. It
is a sleep from which there is no waking up.
Even the cock’s clarion cannot wake them up.
Then
the poet refers to the useful work the poor used to do when they were
alive. They used to plough and
reap. Men of ambition may mock at the
humble toil. The short and simple annuals
of the poor may not impress men of grandeur.
But such men must remember one thing.
The paths of glory lead, but to the grave. The poor villagers have no monuments over
their graves. But can urns and busts
bring the dead back to life? So long as they cannot, they are useless. Here Gray points out that there might have
been talented men among these dead villagers.
There might have been Hamptons, Miltons and Cromwells among them. There
might have been even gifted musicians among them. Poverty froze their talents. Somehow they were lucky. As they could not do great deeds, so they did
not commit great crimes. So they could
die with clean hearts.
Gray
refers here to the common weaknesses of all men. Even the poor are not free from it. They too wish to be loved in life and
remembered after death. After their
death, they want at least some crude stones to mark their graves. The stones may carry just the names and
dates. However, Gray’s poem ends with a
self-portrait. Here he visualizes the
scene of his own death. When he is dead,
someone may enquire about him. He may
come to know about the poet as a man who never missed a glorious sunrise from
the top of the hill. Gray refers to his
love of nature and his lonely wanderings.
Fame and fortune had never smiled on him. Melancholy had adopted him as her son. His bounty was large, and his soul
sincere. He gave to misery all that he
had, his tears. God, in his recompense,
sent him a true friend. And that was all
he wanted in life. Gray’s self-portrait
is a very honest account. They also tell
us that he had only one true friend, whose name was Richard West.
The Elegy
is remarkable for its simplicity of expression.
The poet gives a perfect expression of his feelings and sentiments. It contains neo classical qualities like
allusiveness, alliteration, and personification. It also foreshadows the romantic poetry of
Burns, Wordsworth and Shelley. Thus, Elegy
makes a shift from neo-classism to romanticism.
The verse of the poem is musical and has a haunting quality. The reflections on life and death make the
poem a philosophical poem, but it is also a sort of dramatic monologue in which
the speaker has addressed imaginary readers or listeners. Different factors may be said to be responsible
for its greatness. Its universal appeal,
its humanity and broader concern with the human condition are as much contributive
to its greatness as its poetic merits. To
conclude, it may suffice to quote Douglas Bush, who sums up its greatness by
saying, “One obvious reason is the power of style which makes almost every line
an example of ‘what opt was thought but never so well expressed”.
A group of words that makes a complete sense is called a
sentence.
John helps Mary.
Who helps Mary?
Help Mary.
What a great help!
Kinds of Sentences
A sentence that makes a statement or an assertion is called Assertive
or Declarative Sentence.
He wrote his exam
yesterday.
They are admitted in the
hospital.
A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence.
Where did he go?
Will he attend the
meeting?
A sentence that expresses a command, request or an advice is called an imperative
sentence.
Come here.
Don’t smoke.
A sentence that expresses a strong feeling is called an exclamatory
sentence.
What a lovely place is
this!
Alas! Our leader is no
more.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
In a meaningful sentence, we have a subject to speak about and a predicate,
something about that subject.Usually
the subject comes first.But in
imperative sentences the subject is left out.
The Earth revolves round
the Sun.
The dancing of the
peacock delights us.
Sit down.
Please, help me.
THE PHRASE AND THE CLAUSE
A group of words, that makes sense, but not complete sense is called a
phrase.
It was a sunset of great
beauty.
He left the house in
the early morning.
A group of words that becomes a part of a sentence, and contains a
subject and a predicate is called a clause.
He gave her a chain of
gold. (Phrase)
He gave her a chain which
is madeof gold. (Clause)
I think that you have
learned everything. (Clause)
Verbs – 5 – Modal Auxiliaries (can, could; may,
might.....)
Can
‘can’ expresses ability or capacity. (be able to do
something)
I can lift this box.
She
can drive very well.
Can
you speak Russian?
‘can’ is used in the sense of ‘may’ to give
permission. (may is, no doubt, more correct)
You can go now.
You can take one of these cakes,
if you like.
Can I come in, Sir?
COULD
‘could’ is used as the past tense of can in
reported speech.
He said, ‘I can’t do this work’
He
said that he couldn’t do that work.
They
said ‘we can help them’
They
said that they could help them.
‘could’ is the past tense of ‘can’. So it is used to indicate ability that
existed in the past.
Till last year my grandfather could walk
without walking stick.
Why couldn’t you attend the
function, last night?
They realized that they couldn’t
catch the train.
‘could’ is used to express possibility or uncertainty
in the unreal conditions.
You could get good marks, if you
worked hard. (Possibility)
If I had enough money, I could
buy this property. (Uncertainty)
‘could’ is also used to ask polite questions.
Could you please, take me to your manager?
Could you lend me your phone to make a call?
MAY
‘May’ is used to express permission.
May I come in, please? (Yes, you may.)
May I leave this place, now? (No, you may not)
‘May’ is also used to express possibility.
They may
accept or they may not
You may catch the train if you leave now.
‘May’ is used to express a wish
May God bless you!
May his soul rest in peace!
‘May’ is used in
subordinate clause to express a purpose.
Obey and love your parents that you may prosper in your life.
Eat that you may live; don’t live that you may
eat.
MIGHT
‘Might’ is used as the past tense of ‘may’ in reported
speech.
She said, ‘I may meet him there’
She said that she might meet him
there.
They said, ‘she may have said
so.’
They said that she might have
said so.
‘Might’ is used to denote a more doubtful
possibility than ‘may’
He may pass –
He might pass.
The patient may recover – The patient might recover
‘Might’ is used to express a gentle reproach.
Actually, John, you might have
told me about this before.
In my opinion, she might have
paid the fee on time.
MUST
‘Must’, can be used in present, past and future
tenses.When it is used in past, it is
with the present perfect of the main verb.
You must see the manager now.
(Present)
We must reserve a seat in
advance. (Future)
They must have sent their
application before the last date. (Past)
‘Must’ is used to express a strong obligation
of compulsion.
We must be loyal to our country.
We
must help the needy and the poor.
‘Must’ also expresses necessity.
We must get up early and complete
everything in time.
They must build up a strong army
to defend their country.
‘Must’ expresses probability
or likelihood.
The calling bell rings. That must be the post man.
He must be mad to do this.
‘Must’ also expresses
strong determination.
You must insist on being given
your full share.
I must go to that place and help
him.
OUGHT
‘Ought’ is not as forceful as ‘must’ but it is
stronger than ‘should’.It is actually
the past tense of ‘owe’.It is followed
by ‘to-infinitive’.It points out
present and future tense.
‘Ought’ expresses duty, necessity, moral
obligation etc.
They ought to attend the office
regularly. (Duty)
We ought to help the poor.
(Obligation)
We ought to buy the necessary
medicine for him.
When ‘ought’ refers to past time, it is
followed by perfect infinitive.
He ought to have helped his brother.
They have done things that they ought
not to have done.
NEED
‘Need’ is used both as a principal verb
and as an auxiliary.
It means ‘require’ when it is used as a principal
verb.
She needs your help.
They needed some more time to
finish the work.
‘Need’ as an auxiliary is uninflected and is always
used with ‘not’
He need not wait any longer.
They need not make such a fuss
over it.
Sometimes, ‘need’ is used with ‘hardly’
I need hardly add that you are
always welcome.
I need hardly say that I am very
grateful to you.
Similarly, ‘need’ is also used with ‘only’
She need only say where she wants
to go and we will take her there.
You need only sign this paper and
I will do the rest.
‘Need’ is also used in questions without ‘not’
Need I wait any
longer?
Need
he come again?
He
need not pay any fine, need he?
(If the answer is ‘no’, he need not’ it
is allowable.But if the answer is
positive, it must be ‘Yes, he must’.The
opposite of ‘need not’ is not ‘need’, but ‘must’.)
When a past time is referred, ‘need’ is followed by
the perfect infinitive.
You need not have come all this
way to see me.
He need not have waited for the
reply.
DARE
‘Dare is used both as a principal verb and as an
auxiliary.
It means ‘defy’, ‘challenge’ or ‘face
boldly’ when it is used as a principal verb.
He dares you to the fight.
She
dared to call him a liar.
There is nothing that John does not dare.
As an auxiliary, ‘dare’ is uninflected and is used
with ‘not’. But in questions it is used
without ‘not’.
He dare not do so.
I
dare not take such a risk.
How
dare he do such a thing?
The expression ‘I dare say......’ is now used with the
meaning ‘perhaps’
I dare say he will agree to our proposal
‘Do you think he will come?’
‘I dare say, he will.’
Some equivalents of Modal Auxiliaries
1.Be able to
He is able to do this. (Can do)
They were able to help him.
(Could)
2.Had better
You had better
have some rest. (Should)
She had better consult a doctor. (Should or ought to)
3.Have to, Have got to
I have to be there at 10 O’clcok. (Must)
Do you have to go there? (Is it necessary?)
I have got to help them. (Must)
PROFICIENCY IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE (MALAYALAM) PART – 17 - VERBS - 5
An auxiliary is a verb that is used to form the tenses, moods, voices
etc of other verbs.
The Auxiliary verbs in English
‘Be’ and its forms : am, is, are, was, were
‘Have’ and its forms : has, had
‘Do’ and its forms : does, did
Shall, should : Will, Would
Can, could : may, might
Must, ought (to) : need, dare.
Among these be, have, do are used to express statements of fact. So, they are called Primary auxiliaries.
He
is writing a novel.
They were
soldiers.
She didn’t
do it properly.
All other auxiliaries are used to express the
conceptions of the mind such as wishes, expectations, possibilities,
probabilities, possibilities etc (Mood or Manners). So, they are called Modal Auxiliaries.
They are actually coloured by the speaker’s feelings (Hopes, fears,
expectations etc)
She may come : She must come.
She need not come : She dare not come.
She will come : She can come
A. The Primary Auxiliaries
The primary auxiliaries, be, have and do are
used both as Principal verbs. (main verbs) and as Auxiliaries. (Helping verbs)
John is a good teacher.
(Principal verb)
Mary was cleaning the room.
(Auxiliary)
She has a bad back pain.
(Principal)
She has taken a pain killer.
(Auxiliary)
He did his work well. (Principal)
Where did you put the book. (Auxiliary)
‘Be’ as a principal verb
Vivek is a lawyer (linking the subject
with a noun)
She is very beautiful. (linking
the subject with an adjective)
Your book is there. (linking the
subject with an adverb)
He is to retire next year.
(linking the subject with an infinitive)
Be
quiet. (expressing a command)
Be
a good boy. (giving an advice)
‘Be’ as an Auxiliary verb
·He
is painting the wall. -
·They
were standing at the gate. – (both these sentences form present and past continuous)
§The dinner is being cooked
§They were questioned.
§He
was treated badly. (these three
sentences – to form passive voice)
‘Have’ as a principal verb.
She has a Benz car. (possession)
He had a head ache. (experience)
I have a message from her.
(receiving)
‘Have’ as an auxiliary
(to form perfect tenses)
You have
violated the rules.
She has
turned down their offer.
She had gone before they entered.
‘Do’ as a principal verb
(performing an act)
Can you do
it by yourself?
You must do
it correctly.
‘Do’ as an auxiliary verb
(to ask questions)
Do you know where
he lives?
Did
you pay the bill?
Don’t
you agree with her?
(To form negative sentence)
I saw him there – I didn’t see him there.
She gave me the money – She didn’t
give me the money
(to emphasise an assertion)
I do admit that I was wrong
They did say that they would pay
up.
B. Modal Auxiliaries
The Modal
auxiliaries shall, should; will, would; can, could; may, might; must,
ought(to); need, dare; are never used alone, have single form whatever be the
person and won’t have the infinitive or participle forms.
You can win – She can win
He
may pass – They may pass
(We can’t say 'to must' or 'musting' like 'to win' and
'winning')
Shall
‘Shall’ expresses the strong possibility or near
certainty of an event or action that is to take place in the future.
When shall we meet again?
Shall
we begin?
(Shall is now used only with ‘we’, that too in seeking
permission or in making suggestion)
Will
1.‘Will’ is used to express a determination, promise,
threat or willingness with the first person (I, We)
I will do it, whatever happens.
(determination)
We will thing over it and let you
know soon. (promise)
I will teach him a lesson. (threat)
Ok, I will come with you.
(willingness)
2.‘Will’ expresses the strong possibility or war
certainty of an event or action that is to take place in the future with the
second and third persons. (you, he, she, it, they)
John will be back in August.
The train will leave the station at 10. P. M.
Should
1.‘Should’ is the past tense of ‘shall’ and is used as
such in indirect speech. (Reported speech)
Direct: He said, ‘We shall
assemble here tomorrow’.
Indirect:
He said that they should assemble there the next day.
2. ‘Should’ is
used to express duty or obligation
You should tell the truth.
He should pay the fee in time.
We should work for the common good.
3.‘Should’ is used in conditional clauses to express
possibilities or suppositions.
If he should come, ask him to wait.
(less possibility than, “If he comes ask him to wait.)
Should it rain, there won’t be an outing
today.
4.‘Should’ expresses less possibility than ‘shall’
I shall be happy to meet John.
I should be happy to meet John.
5.‘Should’ is used in main clauses, expressing unreal
conditions.
If I were you, I should accept this offer.
Were
I a king, I shouldn’t be happier than I am.
4. ‘Should’ is the only auxiliary that is used after ‘lest’
The army surrounded the house lest the
terrorists should escape.
Watch
and pray lest you should fall into temptation.
5. ‘Should’ is used to express a polite form of making a statement with
‘should like to’
I should like to convey my sincere thanks to all
of you for your encouragement.
I
should like to congratulate the participants on the high level of the
debate we have had.
Would
1.‘Would’ is the past tense of ‘will’ and is used as such
in indirect speech.
She said, “I will not help him
anymore”
She said that she would not help
him anymore.
2. ‘Would’
expresses ‘willingness’ and ‘determination’
They said they would try their best to help me (willingness)
I
would help him though many advised me not to do. (determination)
3.‘Would’ expresses a customary action in the past.
After supper we would sit in the
drawing room and watch the T.V for some time.
The crows would come and pick up
the crumbs from his hand then.
4. ‘Would’ and
‘would like to’ express a wish
I would like to know what my duty
is.
Treat others as you would be
treated by others.
5. ‘Would rather’
express choice or preference.
She would rather die than marry
him.
I would rather read a novel than
see that boring.
6. ‘Would’ is used
for asking polite questions.
Would you like a cup of coffee.
Would you mind lending me your phone to
make a call?
7. Would is used
in main clauses expressing un real and improbable conditions.
If I were a king, I would make you my
Queen.
Were I the Prime Minister, I would allot
a sizable fund for the development of highways in our state.
PROFICIENCY IN ENGILSH LANGUAGE (MALAYALAM) PART – 16 – VERB 4